TOOLS FOR ANALYSIS ~ UTOPIA PERTANIAN NUSANTARA

A. WORD CLASES (2)

1. Prepositions

A preposition is one of parts of speech. It is often used in English, both in spoken and written language. In general, preposition is a word which precedes a noun (or a pronoun) to show the noun’s (or the pronoun’s) relationship to another word in the sentence. Prepositions are the words that indicate location. Usually, prepositions show this location in the physical world.

a. The form of preposition that are:

1. Simple Preposition

Example: after, at, by, for, from, of, over, on, in through, to, off, till, under, up, and with.

2. Double Preposition

Example: into, onto, from under, from among, from off, from within

3. Compound Preposition

Example: Across (on cross), behind (by hind), about (on by out), above (on by up). Beside (by side)

4. Participal Preposition

Example: pending, during, except, corncerning

5. Prepositional Phrase (Complex preposition

Example: because of, in behalf of, by means of, in front of, in view of, in terms of , in addition to

b. The kinds of Prepositions

1. Preposition of Time

Preposition	Use	Example
On	Name of the day	On sunday
In	Month, season	In summer, in 2014
At	Specific time	At 2 o’clock, at night
Since	In that time until now	Since 1945
For	During that period	For 1 years
Before		Before 2011

2. Preposition of Place

Preposition	Example
In ininin	In the kitchen, in London, in the picture
At	At the door, at the station, at the party, at the concert, at the cinema
On	The picture on the wall, on the table, on the first floor, on a plane
By, next to, beside	John is standing beside the bus
Under	The book is under the table
Below	The fish are below the surface
Over	Put a jacket over your T-shirt
Above	A path above the lake
Towards	Go 5 steps toward the house

2. Conjunctions

Conjunction is the part of speech that serves to connect words, phrases, clauses or sentences. The common conjunctions are : and, but, for, or, nor, yet, and so .

Coordinating Conjunctions :

a. Yet

Yet has approximately the same meaning as but. Use yet when the second part of

the sentence says something unexpected or surprising. Example :

I was scared, yet I was also curious about the old lady

b. For

For has the same meaning as because. Use for to introduce a reason or cause.

Example :

It is not easy to get there, for you have to hike down a long hot trail

c. Nor

Nor means “not this and not that”. Use nor to join two negative sentences.

Example :

The book is not very long, nor is it difficult to read.

Function of Conjunctions

· Coordinating conjunctions (Coordinators) to link sentences, clauses, and

phrases. English has four coordinators: and, but, or, for.

· Subordinating conjunctions (Subordinators) to introduce subclauses.

Do you mind if I smoke? (as sentence constituent)

The day before he died (constituent of NP)

Easier than we expect (constituent of AP)

as effectively as we had hoped. (constituent of AdvP)

3. Articles

There are only three articles in English: a, an and the. There are two types of articles indefinite 'a ' and ' an' or definite 'the' .

a. Indefinite articles - a and an (determiners)

A and an are the indefinite articles. They refer to something not specifically

known to the person you are communicating with.

Position of a and an articles :

· Used before nouns that introduce something or someone you have not

mentioned before: For example:

I saw an elephant this morning.

· Used when talking about your profession: For example :

I am an English teacher."

· We use A article when the noun you are referring to begins with a

consonant.

Example : a city , a factory .

· We Use An article when the noun you are referring to begins with a vowel.

Note! If the next word begins with a consonant sound when we say it, for example, "university" then we use a . If the next word begins with a vowel sound when we say it, for example "hour" then we use an.

b. Definite Article - the (determiners)

Using The article :

o We use the when you have already mentioned the thing you are talking about. Example :

"She's got two children; a girl and a boy. The girl's eight and the boy's fourteen."

o We use the to talk about geographical points on the globe. For example : the North Pole, the equator

o We use the to talk about rivers, oceans and seas For example : the Nile, the Pacific, the English channel.

o We also use the before certain nouns when weknow there is only one of a particular thing. For example : the rain, the sun, the wind, the world, the earth, the White House etc..

4. Numerals

There are two sets of numeral: cardinal and ordinal numbers.

· Cardinal Numbers: 0, 1, 2 ,3 zero, one, two, three. They can be modified

by adverbs: about, almost, approximately, nearly, over etc.

e.g. There were about 200 students

· Ordinal numbers 1st, 2nd, 1001st first, second, one thousand and first.

Both cardinal and ordinal numbers function in the structure of the Noun Phrase or as constituents of the sentence. E.g :

Forty is an interesting age.

He was the first to arrive

5. Pronouns

Pronoun is the part of speech that substitutes for nouns or noun phrases and designates person or things asked for, previously specified, or understood from the context . Example :

· Harry is a good boy. He rises early in the morning.

( “He” is the pronoun used instead of Harry )

Types of Pronouns :

a. Personal Pronouns

Person	Singular Number	Plural Number
First Person	I My, Mine Me	We Our, Ours Us
Second Person	You Your, Yours You	You Your, Yours You
Third Person	He, She, It His, Her, Hers, Its Him, Her, It	They Their, Theirs Them

Subject Pronoun

The function as a subject

Singular	Plural
I	You
She	They
He	we
It

Complement Pronoun

The function as an object

Singular	Plural
Me	Us
You	Them
Him
Her
It

Possessive adjective

The function as an adjective and explain the own of the noun

Singular	Plural
My	Our
Your	Your
His	their
Her
It

Posessive Pronoun

The function as subtitute word to explain the noun.

Singular	Plural
Mine	Ours
Yours	Yours
His	Theirs
Hers
Its

Reflexive Pronoun

Singular	Plural
Myself	Ourselves
Yourself	Yourselves
Himself	Themselves
Herself
Itself

6. Quantifiers

Quantifier is a word or phrase which indicates the number or amount being referred to. It generally comes before the noun or noun phrase. Example of quantifiers :

All

Any

Both

Each

Enough

Every

Few

Little/less

A lot of

Many

Several

some

Using quantifiers

a. Use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about the number of something. Eg. How much or how many .

b. We use quantifiers in the place of determiner. Example :

Most children start school at the age of five.

c. Some quantifiers can be used only with count nouns :

( both, each, either, neither, several )

d. Quantifiers are used at the beginning of noun phrases :

§ Before a noun on its own : e.g fewer answers.

§ Before an adjective and noun : e.g some useful phrases.

§ Before an adverb, adjective and noun. E.g every really pleasant experience.

The subclasses of quantifiers:

a. As head of Noun Phrase . Example : Someone (body/thing) , anyone, everyone, no one, none. E.g :

Someone must have the window open.

b. As Determiner. Example : every, no. Example :

He has no money.

Every politician is responsible for his promises.

c. As head of NP and Determiner. (some, much, fewer, enough, several, both, all) e.g. Much of what he said is irrelevant.

I rang my parents but both were out.

7. Interjections

An interjection is a word that expresses some kind of emotion. It can be used as filler. Interjections do not have a grammatical function in the sentence and are not related to the other parts of the sentence. If an interjection is omitted, the sentence still makes sense. It can stand alone. Example :

· Ouch! That hurts.

· Well, I need a break.

· Wow! What a beautiful dress!

Interjections can express such emotions as : Surpise, satisfaction, great satisfaction, great surpise, pleasure.. etc.

B. NOUN PHRASES

The noun phrase is a group of words that begin with a determiner and ends with a noun. A noun phrase includes a noun, a person, place, or thing and the modifiers which distinguish it.

The formula : Determiner + Noun

Part of determiner :

§ Articles ( The, a and an )

§ Numerals ( One, Two,. etc )

§ Demonstrative ( that, this, those, these )

§ Possessive pronoun ( my, your, his, her, their, its )

§ Quantifiers ( some-, any-, every-, several-, .. etc )

§ Adjectives . e.g : I use new smart phone

C. TREE DIAGRAM

A tree diagram is a graphic representation of syntactic constituent structure. Tree diagram has function is to describe sentence in diagramatic form and to make a pattern/template to make sentence. It functions to tell us something about word order and kinds of words which can go together.